Long-Term Financial Operations

Bonds

Long-term capital may be raised either through borrowing or by the issuance of stock. Long-term borrowing is done by selling bonds, which are promissory notes that obligate the firm to pay interest at specific times. Securedbondholders have prior claim on the firm’s assets. If the company goes out of business, the bondholders are entitled to be paid the face value of their holdings plus interest. Stockholders, on the other hand, have no more than a residual claim on the company; they are entitled to a share of the profits, if there are any, but it is the prerogative of the board of directors to decide whether a dividend will be paid and how large it will be.

Long-term financing involves the choice between debt (bonds) and equity (stocks). Each firm chooses its own capital structure, seeking the combination of debt and equity that will minimize the costs of raising capital. As conditions in the capital market vary (for instance, changes in interest rates, the availability of funds, and the relative costs of alternative methods of financing), the firm’s desired capital structure will change correspondingly.

The larger the proportion of debt in the capital structure (leverage), the higher will be the returns to equity. This is because bondholders do not share in the profits. The difficulty with this, of course, is that a high proportion of debt increases a firm’s fixed costs and increases the degree of fluctuation in the returns to equity for any given degree of fluctuation in the level of sales. If used successfully, leverage increases the returns to owners, but it decreases the returns to owners when it is used unsuccessfully. Indeed, if leverage is unsuccessful, the result may be the bankruptcy of the firm.

Long-term debt

There are various forms of long-term debt. A mortgage bond is one secured by a lien on fixed assets such as plant and equipment. A debenture is a bond not secured by specific assets but accepted by investors because the firm has a high credit standing or obligates itself to follow policies that ensure a high rate of earnings. A still more junior lien is the subordinated debenture, which is secondary (in terms of ability to reclaim capital in the event of a business liquidation) to all other debentures and specifically to short-term bank loans.

Stock

Equity financing is done with common and preferred stock. While both forms of stock represent shares of ownership in a company, preferred stock usually has priority over common stock with respect to earnings and claims on assets in the event of liquidation. Preferred stock is usually cumulative—that is, the omission of dividends in one or more years creates an accumulated claim that must be paid to holders of preferred shares. The dividends on preferred stock are usually fixed at a specific percentage of face value. A company issuing preferred stock gains the advantages of limited dividends and no maturity—that is, the advantages of selling bonds but without the restrictions of bonds. Companies sell preferred stock when they seek more leverage but wish to avoid the fixed charges of debt. The advantages of preferred stock will be reinforced if a company’s debt ratio is already high and if common stock financing is relatively expensive.

If a bond or preferred stock issue was sold when interest rates were higher than at present, it may be profitable to call the old issue and refund it with a new, lower-cost issue. This depends on how the immediate costs and premiums that must be paid compare with the annual savings that can be obtained.

Earnings and dividend policies

The size and frequency of dividend payments are critical issues in company policy. Dividend policy affects the financial structure, the flow of funds, corporate liquidity, stock prices, and the morale of stockholders. Some stockholders prefer receiving maximum current returns on their investment, while others prefer reinvestment of earnings so that the company’s capital will increase. If earnings are paid out as dividends, however, they cannot be used for company expansion (which thereby diminishes the company’s long-term prospects). Many companies have opted to pay no regular dividend to shareholders, choosing instead to pursue strategies that increase the value of the stock.

Convertible bonds and stock warrants

Companies sometimes issue bonds or preferred stock that give holders the option of converting them into common stock or of purchasing stock at favourable prices. Convertible bonds carry the option of conversion into common stock at a specified price during a particular period. Stock purchase warrants are given with bonds or preferred stock as an inducement to the investor, because they permit the purchase of the company’s common stock at a stated price at any time. Such option privileges make it easier for small companies to sell bonds or preferred stock. They help large companies to float new issues on more favourable terms than they could otherwise obtain. When bondholders exercise conversion rights, the company’s debt ratio is reduced because bonds are replaced by stock. The exercise of stock warrants, on the other hand, brings additional funds into the company but leaves the existing debt or preferred stock on the books. Option privileges also permit a company to sell new stock at more favourable prices than those prevailing at the time of issue, since the prices stated on the options are higher. Stock purchase warrants are most popular, therefore, at times when stock prices are expected to have an upward trend. (See also stock option.)